My impression is that in medieval and ancient Europe, the bulk of the population were serfs or slaves with very limited legal rights -- the opposite of independence. They also had well defined land holdings -- they did not "live independently off the commons".

I have the impression that there are hunter-gathering or herding societies where the population "lived independently off the commons" -- but are there examples of societies with farming and cities where this was a routine or comfortable way of life?

To find a society "before and outside" capitalism in the relevant sense, requires going very far back in the history of our civilization. Are there examples from other parts of the world that you have in mind?